Frack Quakes
Big Oil’s Four Dog Defense &
How to Beat it!
Frack Quakes are human induced earthquakes caused by the injection
or withdrawal of drilling related fluids.
Do not be fooled by industry jargon; Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking)
cannot take place without disposal usually re-injection of vast amounts of wastewater
and toxic chemicals. By the same token oil and gas production cannot continue
without the production and frequently the injection of vast amounts of water
into the rocks.
A study of past litigation against offending oil companies by Eco-Alert
reveals a legal strategy which is referred to as the Four Dog Defense. In the
past, victims became aware of this carefully honed strategy only when they have
signed with an attorney for representation. We are presenting this defense and
the counter arguments as a public service in the context of induced or
triggered earthquake damage.
The four dog defense was
developed by the tobacco industry and it works like this:
- My Dog Does
Not Bite. (Fracking activities do not cause Earthquakes)
- My Dog Bites,
But It Didn't Bite You. (Some fracking activities have caused earthquakes
but not in this area.)
- My Dog Bit
You. But It Didn't Hurt You. (Fracking related earthquakes are very small
and have not been shown to cause significant damage)
- My Dog Bit You
and Hurt You, But It Wasn't My Fault (We didn’t know that fracking
activities could cause significant earthquake damage, but we have taken
every precaution to limit the chances of earthquakes and prevent damages
in the future.)
Now let us debunk these arguments one at a time
1.
My Dog Does Not Bite. (Fracking activities do not cause
Earthquakes)
All Oil and Gas companies know this is a lie. Therefore, they
disguise their defense in industry jargon designed to limit both the time frame
and conditions under which the rebuttal cases can be applied. They talk about
high volume horizontal drilling, or slick-water drilling They obfuscate with
proppants, gels and produced water.
They basically drill the hole vertically and horizontally, line it
with pipe and cement, perforate the pipe and then pump fluids in as a way to
enhance pumping gas and fluids out. The big differences between traditional
completions are the higher pressures, much higher volumes and the mix of
chemicals they add to the fluids being pumped in.
EARTHQUAKES BENEATH OIL AND GAS FIELDS CALIFORNIA EARTHQUAKES CASE STUDY
40 Case Studies for Induced or Triggered Earthquakes-McGarr
2002
The 1983 Coalinga earthquake [M6.2] occurred beneath a major
producing oil field, but geologists were initially skeptical that the two were
related due to the 6-mile depth of the earthquake focus. Numerous large
aftershocks in the vicinity of the field failed to convince them at the time
But the ensuing occurrence of large earthquakes directly beneath
two other oil fields from which exceptional amounts of liquid had been extracted,
i.e., the 1985 M = 6.1 Kettleman North Dome and the 1987 M = 6 Whittier Narrows
earthquakes, generated renewed interest in a possible link between oil
production and large, midcrustal earthquakes. McGarr (1991) noted that the dimensions
of the oil fields, 13 km for Coalinga, 23 km for Kettleman North Dome, and 6 km
for the Montebello field above the Whittier Narrows earthquake, are similar to
the dimensions of the respective aftershock sequences.
Of particular interest, though, is that the ratios of net liquid production
to total seismic moment are nearly the same for all three events. The agreement
between the seismic deformation and expectations based on liquid production is
quite good
These are only a few of the more than 40 case studies for induced
or triggered earthquakes from man-made activities documented by McGarr in 2002.
LOS ANGELES BASIN CASE
STUDY Injection-Induced Seismicity Leading
Edge 2015
The Century of LA Basin Fields (Hauksson et al 2015) revealed
“6 damaging events of as much as Mag 3.3
induced by fluid extraction from 1947 to 1961 in the Wilmington oil field, before fluid injection became
common. Historical production at the Wilmington oil field was linked to
significant surface subsidence as well as some induced seismicity. The subsidence
in the Wilmington field reached about 30 feet from 1926–1968 and affected the
Los Angeles harbor and adjacent regions. Due to high production rates in Los
Angeles, only three oil fields — Huntington Beach, Richfield, and Wilmington —
have experienced net injection since 1977. The Wilmington earthquakes began about two decades after the initiation of
extraction.
Previously, both
the 1933 M 6.4 Long Beach and the 1987 M 5.9 Whittier Narrows
earthquakes occurred close to major oil fields, the Huntington Beach and
Montebello fields. Deeper seismicity within these oilfields exhibited
apparent rate increases and also in the 2001 sequence beneath the Beverly Hills
oil field, and the 2014 MW 5.1 La Habra sequence near the abandoned West-Coyote
field.
Earthquakes induced by extraction might
be less likely to occur than events caused by injection because crustal stress changes resulting
from fluid extraction are approximately an order of magnitude lower than for
fluid injection.
ROCKY
MOUNTAIN ARSENAL WELL CASE STUDY
One of the earliest
and most spectacular examples of seismicity related to fluid injection occurred
near Denver, Colorado in the 1960s (Evans, 1966; Healy et al., 1968) Hazardous
wastes were being injected under high pressures at a depth of 3.7 km at the
Rocky Mountain Arsenal. Soon after injection started, earthquakes began to be
felt in the Denver area, a region that previously had experienced little or no
earthquake activity. The seismicity was initially concentrated near the bottom
of the injection well, but eventually spread along a linear zone for about 8.7
km. Of particular interest, however, is
that the largest
earthquake, of magnitude 4.85 (Herrmann et al., 1981) occurred more than a year
after injection had ceased.
ASHTABULA, OHIO – CASE STUDY
Liquid waste was injected into the
1.8 km deep basal Paleozoic formation of the Appalachian Plateau near Ashtabula
Ohio. A magnitude 3.6 mainshock occurred in 1987 a year after the onset of injection and more than 30 km from any other
known earthquake.
2.
My Dog Bites, But It Didn't Bite You. (Some fracking activities
have caused earthquakes but not of this magnitude in this area.)
The following case studies are based on a recently released volume
of the LEADING EDGE Special Section on Injection Induced Seismicity from June 2015.
-
OKLAHOMA
EARTHQUAKES – Case Study
According
to Fox News [Feb 14, 2016], briny wastewater, a result of gas and oil
production, has been blamed for the increasing number of earthquakes in
Oklahoma. Though there are options available to reduce, or even eradicate, some
of these collections of wastewater, oil and gas operators are reluctant to take
any steps to lessen the volume.
Oklahoma
experiences more earthquakes than anywhere in the world. Before 2009, Oklahoma
had two earthquakes of magnitude 3.0 or greater each year, but now there are
two a day. A 5.1 magnitude earthquake that shook northwest Oklahoma Feb 14, 2016
was the third-strongest ever recorded in the state, the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) said. And, on Feb 23, 2016 experienced seven earthquakes which rattled
the city of Edmond in central Oklahoma.
A Century of
Earthquakes in Oklahoma Hough and Page 2015 Bull SSA
The
rate of earthquakes has increased sharply since 2009 in the central and eastern
United States, with growing evidence confirming that these earthquakes are
primarily caused by human activity, namely the injection of wastewater in deep
disposal wells
"In
Oklahoma, seismicity rates since 2009 far surpass previously observed rates at
any time during the 20th century," The lead author states “most of the significant
earthquakes in Oklahoma during the 20th century may also have been induced by
oil production activities Deep injection of waste water, now recognized to
potentially induce earthquakes, in fact began in the state in the 1930s."
Prior
to the 2011 magnitude 5.7 Prague, Oklahoma earthquake, the largest historical
earthquake in the area was the 1952 magnitude 5.7 El Reno earthquake, which the
study concludes was likely induced by activities related to oil production near
Edmond, Oklahoma.
Efforts to
Monitor and Characterize the Recent Increasing Seismicity in Central Oklahoma McNamara et al 2015
South-central Oklahoma is the
most populated region of the state, with more than one million inhabitants in
the Oklahoma City metropolitan area. It is also the location of significant energy-industry
and national strategic infrastructure such as the Cushing crude-oil storage
facility
The
specific earthquake sequences observed in central Oklahoma in recent years do
not behave with a typical main-shock– aftershock
progression. Instead, they are swarmlike, similar to volcanic sequences, with
large- and small-magnitude events interspersed
in time, and most of the larger earthquakes are preceded by numerous moderate foreshocks.
The November 2011 Prague, Oklahoma, sequence is a good example, with an equal number
of magnitude 4 foreshocks and aftershocks.
1.
My Dog Bit You. But It Didn't Hurt You. (Fracking related
earthquakes are very small and have not been shown to cause damage)
Modern fracking methods require 4-8 million gallons of water and
use toxic additives such as diesel fuel, biocides, benzene, acids and more
recently polyacrylamides. These can
consist of more than 300 individual chemicals whose function is to prop open fractures,
decrease friction increase fluid viscosity, prevent clays from swelling, break
emulsions, reduce surface tension etc. many of these chemicals have never been
tested for toxicity to humans and some are still claimed to be proprietary.
Benzene
is a known carcinogen responsible for increased rates of leukemia and liver
failure. Operators frequently argue that the fracking fluids only contain about
1% benzene but that still amounts to 40,000 to 80,000 gallons of a potent
cancer causing chemical. Polyacrylamide is not very toxic except that it always
contains impurities of acrylamide which is a neurotoxin. Furthermore, conditions in the subsurface may
cause degradation and depolymerization (above 300deg F leading to even more
acrylamide.)
Elevated
hazard for Oklahoma City. Beginning in 2010 and continuing to the time of writing (late
February 2015), earthquake rates have shown a significant increase in the region
northeast of Oklahoma City.
In
2014, 608 magnitude 3 and greater earthquakes occurred in central Oklahoma
(more than in California), including 17 earthquakes with magnitudes of 4 or
larger (a rate of 1.4/month). This year, 2015, shows no sign of decline in earthquake rate,
with more than 200 M 3 and nine M 4 earthquakes by late March — a rate of three
M 4 and larger earthquakes per month (Figure 2).
Of
particular concern for residents of Oklahoma City are active earthquake
sequences associated with long fault structures that might be capable of
supporting large earthquakes (M 5 to 6).
Faulting
in this area “could cause a cascade of
earthquakes in the same manner as the Prague sequence in November 2011 (Sumy
et al., 2014). An earthquake of similar magnitude to the Prague MW 5.6 would
produce severe shaking a broad region around the epicenter (MMI VIII) and would
pose significant hazard to the higher-population-density region of the Oklahoma
City metropolitan area.
[OKC COULD BE FACING NOT ONE DAMAGING AND
POTENTIAL DEVASTATING EARTHQUAKE BUT A SWARM OF EARTHQUAKES CHARACTERIZED BY
SEVERAL LARGE FORESHOCKS THEN A MAIN SHOCK OF PEAK MAGNITUDE FOLLOWED BY
NUMEROUS AFTERSHOCKS.
Do you think the people of OKC
should have a vote on whether they would risk their lives and the lives of
their families in order for the obsolete oil industry to make a larger profit
while demanding their right to dump their waste water in the nearest well?
October
2014 Cushing earthquake sequence: Elevated hazard for national strategic
infrastructure.
In
October 2014, two moderate-sized earthquakes (MW 4.0 and 4.3) struck
immediately south of Cushing, Oklahoma, 5 km beneath the site of the
largest crude-oil storage facility in the conterminous United States and a
major hub of the U. S. oil-and-gas pipeline transportation system (Pipeline
and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2015).
Minor
damage was reported throughout Cushing, including cracked plaster, broken
window glass, and items thrown from shelves.
Shortly
after the 7 October 2014 Cushing MW 4.0 event, the OCC halted injection operations
at three wells within a six-mile radius around the main-shock epicenter. This
was the first implementation of the OCC’s traffic-light system since its
inception in late 2013.
Earthquakes
within the Cushing sequence are of particular interest because of their
proximity to critical industry infrastructure. Based on the results from this
study and the similarity of the conjugate strike-slip fault systems in Cushing
and Prague, we suggest that a moderate-magnitude (M 5.6) earthquake, similar
to the 2011 Prague earthquake (M 5.6) could occur at the conjugate fault
intersection directly beneath the Cushing oil storage facility. The
Oklahoma Geological Survey reports that the immediate vicinity of the 2011
Prague M 5.6 epicenter experienced very strong shaking of intensity levels (MMI
VII = 18-34% g) shaking intensity of
MMI VII could cause moderate to heavy damage to storage tanks in the Cushing
facility depending on the tank height, diameter and percent fill [O’Rourke
and S0, 2000]
Based on the stress changes
due to the 2014 Cushing sequence and continued wastewater injection, we
hypothesize tha the Cushing and Wilsetta-Whitehall fault zones are critically stressed in a region sufficient
enough to increase the likelihood of a large and damaging earthquake similar to
the 2011 M 5.6 Prague earthquake.
With
the plummeting price of crude oil, the Cushing
storage facility was expected to approach peak capacity (80 million barrels) by
April 2015 (Wilmoth, 2015), exposing critical resources and infrastructure
to elevated earthquake hazard. The OCC implementation of the traffic-light
system has been a success so far in this case for mitigating potential damage to
the Cushing facility and possibly avoiding an environmental disaster for the
residents of nearby Cushing and costly cleanup for the energy industry.
YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED!
Recent seismicity
in northwest-central Oklahoma. Northwestern central Oklahoma has experienced the most recent
seismicity as a result of northwest migration of active earthquake sequences.
The most recent of these larger events occurred within six days of
each other, 30 January and 5 February 2015, within 10 km of Cherokee. After the
MW 4.0 on 30 January 2015, injection operations at the SandRidge Energy Miguel
well were halted. This marks the second implementation of the OCC traffic-light
system. Less than a week after this decision [injection well shut-in] was made,
a second large earthquake occurred (MW 4.2), less than 8 km from the first,
with multiple smaller accompanying aftershock
They concluded “that the increased rate and occurrence of earthquakes
near optimally oriented and long fault structures has raised the earthquake hazard in central Oklahoma and has increased
the probability for a damaging earthquake.
Recent
seismicity in northwest
2.
My Dog Bit You and Hurt You, But It Wasn't My Fault (We didn’t
know that fracking activities could cause significant Earthquakes but we have
taken every precaution to limit the chances of earthquakes and prevent damages
in the future.)
To combat this argument, you will have to prove beyond a
reasonable doubt that companies have known since the mid 1970’s that fluid
injection and extraction have triggered shallow earthquakes. Fortunately,
recent research has documented historical frack quakes in the West and Midwest
which leave little doubt.
A recent study concluded that the M 3.0 Ohio earthquake on 10 March
2014 was induced by hydraulic fracturing (Skoumal et al., 2015). Additionally,
there are now examples in England which have been documented.
CENTRAL
EASTERN US EARTHQUAKES
High-Rate Injection is Associated with the Increase in U.S
Mid-Continent Seismicity – Weingarten et al 2015 Science
The authors found “the
entire increase in earthquake rate is associated with fluid injection wells.
High-rate injection wells (>300,000 barrels per month) are much more likely
to be associated with earthquakes than lower-rate wells.” One previous study
examined earthquakes in Texas’s Barnett Shale region and found that earthquakes
are commonly located near wells injecting more than 150,000 barrels per month.
The injection of fluids into the subsurface has been known to
induce earthquakes since the mid-1960s [in the Mid-Continent]. The largest
observed [induced earthquake] prior to 2011 was the M 4.9 Rocky Mountain
Arsenal earthquake in 1967.
The central and eastern United States(CEUS) has seen an
unprecedented increase in earthquake rate since 2009, and many of these earthquakes
are believed to be induced (7). Along with the increased rate, several damaging
earthquakes have occurred such as the 2011 magnitude (M) 5.6 Prague, Oklahoma,
earthquake (8, 9), the 2011 M 5.3 Trinidad, Colorado, earthquake (10), the 2012M4.8
Timpson, Texas, earthquake (11), and the 2011 M 4.7 Guy, Arkansas, earthquake.
The database contained 187,570 wells as of December 2014, with 56%
actively injecting fluid (Fig. 1) and the remaining 44% being inactive or abandoned
During the study period (1973 to 2014), they identified 7175
earthquake events in the catalog in the CEUS region. They considered any
earthquake within 15 km of an active injection well to be associated with that
well. They found 18,757 injection wells (~10% of all wells) associated with earthquakes
in the CEUS after filtering, mostly in the states of Oklahoma and Texas (Fig.
1). The number of associated injection wells has tripled since the year 2000.
Wells in central and northcentral Oklahoma are the main
contributors to the dramatic increase in associated seismicity. New production
methods in these regions are generating large volumes of produced water, which
are injected at high rates. Only 8% of all injection wells are located in Oklahoma,
but 40% of the associated injection wells in the CEUS are located in Oklahoma. High-rate
Salt Water Disposal wells are nearly twice as likely as low-rate wells to be
near an earthquake. These high-rate wells perturb the ambient reservoir
pressure by a larger magnitude and over a larger area than low-rate wells, thus
increasing the likelihood that pressure changes will reach an optimally
oriented, critically stressed fault.
They concluded nearly a year ago that “the oil and gas industry
and regulatory bodies can use this operational parameter to lower the likelihood
of earthquakes associated with injection wells.”
Shaking intensity from injection-induced versus tectonic earthquakes
in the central-eastern United States Hough 2015 LEADING EDGE
Seventeen CEUS events are considered between 2013 and 2015. The
results of this study suggest that 15 of the 17 events, most of which occurred
in areas where induced earthquakes have been documented in recent years, are
induced
[Oil companies know if evidence
is not gathered it cannot be used in court. Removing links in the body of
evidence makes it impossible to prove beyond a reasonable doubt the offending
company is responsible. Therefore, oil companies refuse to supply essential
information on the contents of the spill, claiming it is proprietary. Ask
yourself, how can it be legitimate to claim information on the material
damaging the health of victims is proprietary?]
And why is the offending company allowed access to materials
which, in any other investigation, would be secured by law enforcement?
The company knew what was flowing through their pipe – but the
victims, including locally hired clean-up workers, do not. To ensure justice is
done the offending company should be denied any contact with the spilled
material. This should be gathered and analyzed, directly, by law enforcement.
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USGS Publications on Induced
Seismicity
Papers
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